JewishEncyclopedia.com

By : Joseph=20 Jacobs Louis= =20 Grossman =

The science of education. = The=20 fundamental law of Biblical pedagogy is that the child = should be=20 instructed in the doctrines of religion and should know them = so=20 clearly that he will realize that he ought to live in = accordance=20 with them (Deut. iv. 9, vi. 7, xxxi. 12-13). Kennedy says = (in=20 Hastings, "Dict. Bible," s.v. "Education") that the=20 pedagogical principles of Israel are without parallel in = ancient=20 literature. Every home was a school, and every parent a = teacher.=20 Only the aristocracy employed instructors, and these = because, as is=20 the case with all enervated aristocracies, it had become lax = in its=20 sense of responsibility (II Kings x. 1-5). Nevertheless, the = prophet=20 Nathan seems to have acted as the tutor of Solomon (II Sam. = xii.=20 25).

In=20 Bible = Times.
The=20 ability to read and write was general with the ancient = Hebrews. The=20 husband issued the bill ofdivorce. = Witnesses=20 signed documents and contracts, and spies submitted their = report in=20 the form of a plan (Josh. xviii. 9). A boy wrote out the = names of=20 the princes and elders of Succoth (Judges viii. 14). Certain = ritual=20 objects called for the employment of the art of writing,=20 e.g., the tefillin and the mezuzah. = Writing-implements are=20 frequently mentioned (Judges v. 14; Isa. viii. 1; Jer. vii. = 8, xvii.=20 1; Job xix. 24), and calligraphy was cultivated by several = gilds (I=20 Chron. ii. 55). Seven state secretaries are mentioned in the = period=20 of the Kings.A second principle of = Jewish=20 education, equally appreciated and applied, insisted on the=20 recognition of the nature of the child. "Train up a child in = the way=20 he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from = it" (Prov.=20 xxii. 6). The considerateness with which the Bible regards = childhood=20 has its ground not so much in pity for its helplessness as = in an=20 appreciation of its possibilities. The Bible does not make a = thoroughgoing distinction between methods of education and = means of=20 discipline. "Correct thy son," says the Book of Proverbs, = "and he=20 shall give thee rest: yea, he shall give delight unto thy = soul"=20 (ib. xxix. 17). "He that spareth his rod hateth his = son: but=20 he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes" (ib. xiii. = 24).=20 "Withhold not correction from the child: for if thou beatest = him=20 with the rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the = rod,=20 and shalt deliver his soul from hell" (ib. xxiii. = 13-14).=20 Good training, and by that is meant discipline as well, = furthers the=20 happiness of children (ib. x. 1, xvii. 25, xix. 26, = xxiii.=20 24). It brings tranquillity to parents, and attends the = child=20 through life (ib. xix. 8; xxii. = 18).In=20 view of the educational wisdom preserved in it, the Book of = Proverbs=20 constitutes the oldest text-book on pedagogy in existence. = All life,=20 according to it, is disciplinary, and so is education. = Though the=20 rod of correction is necessary (ib. xii. 24; xxix. = 15), still=20 a rebuke is better than a hundred stripes (ib. xvii. = 10). The=20 words of teachers, which are as goads (Eccl. xii. 11), are = spoken=20 "in quiet" (ib. x. 17). The soferim who thus speak = are=20 perhaps the first gild of teachers of which there is any = record.=20 They were the "melammedim," "morim" (ib.), and = "ḥakamim"=20 (Prov. xxii. 17).The reorganization by = Ezra was=20 as epoch-making in educational as it was in civil interests. = "Ezra=20 had prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord, and to = do it,=20 and to teach in Israel statutes and judgments" (Ezra vii. = 10). The=20 Torah, he ordained, should be read and studied. Though Ezra = can=20 hardly be called the founder of the synagogue system under = which the=20 community grouped about the local house of worship, it is = still true=20 that he laid the foundation of it by making the synagogue = central=20 for instruction. Philo calls the synagogue "the place of=20 instruction" ("De Vita Mosis," iii. 27). Greek culture, = which became=20 potent in Palestine, affected Jewish educational methods to = an=20 appreciable degree. Even Jerusalem is said to have had = schools and=20 gymnasia modeled on the Greek type. At any rate it may be = accepted=20 that the level of culture at this period was=20 high.

Simon ben=20 = Shetaḥ.
The founder = of the system of elementary education was Simon ben = Shetaḥ (Yer.=20 Ket. viii. 11, 32b). The school was not in immediate = connection with=20 the synagogue; but sessions were held either in a room of = the=20 synagogue or in the house of the teacher. The teachers = ranked in the=20 following order, namely, sage, scribe, ḥazzan = (Soṭah ix. 15).=20 Between 63 and 65 C.E. Joshua ben Gamla = reformed=20 the system by constraining every community, no matter how = small, to=20 provide instruction for its children (B. B. 21a). In = accordance with=20 Oriental custom, the pupils sat on the ground in a = semicircle about=20 the teacher, who sat on a raised platform (Meg. 21a). The=20 compensation of the teacher was not stipulated, but = consisted of a=20 restitution for loss of time. In fact, some teachers = combined=20 working at a trade with the teaching of the Law. "Do not use = learning as a crown to shine by, nor as a spade to dig = with!" said=20 Rabbi Zadok (Ab. iv. 7). Girls, equally with boys, were = taught to=20 fear God and keep His commandments (Susanna=20 3).After the destruction of Jerusalem = the=20 center of Jewish culture was transferred to Jabneh (70). = Here, with=20 the consent of the Romans, Rabbi Johanan b. Zakkai = established an=20 academy. His example was imitated at C=E6sarea and = elsewhere. Thus the=20 Law was rescued, though the Temple could not be saved. = Pupils=20 crowded these educational rallying-points. Instruction was=20 altogether oral. A verse of the Bible was learned every day, = and the=20 text was then explained with reference to daily=20 living.The greatest event, since the = days of=20 Ezra, in the history of Jewish education has been the = compilation of=20 the Mishnah by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi (198). It not only saved = the laws=20 from oblivion, but it also furnished a text-book for = teaching them.=20 Judah II. declared that the Temple had been destroyed = because the=20 instruction of the young had been inadequate; and he dealt = severely=20 with such communities as supported no teachers. Soon the = beneficent=20 effects were visible. A vigorous intellectual activity = resulted in=20 the existing schools, and the academies of Sura and = Pumbedita became=20 notable. There was also a kind of university extension, = called the=20 Kallah,=20 when students assembled twice a year, in the fall and in the = spring.=20 Lectures were delivered daily at the academies, and once a = week to=20 the people at large, and also on the holidays. At Pumbedita = during=20 one session there were as many as 1,200 students; at the = time of=20 Rabbah bar Naḥmani, about 500.The = following are=20 some of the Talmudic maxims with regard to the character of=20 teachers:

Talmudic=20 = Maxims.
They=20 must be of reputable character. "Only to the pure may the = pure be=20 entrusted." "An intemperate person may not teach." "Before = thou=20 correctest others, clear thyself of thine own faults." "The = Ark was=20 overlaid with gold within and without; so ought the teacher = be=20 morally clean both inwardly and outwardly." "The rash man is = subject=20 to vicious passion." "The teacher must be humble." "Rabbah = came to a=20 town where there was lack of rain. He ordered a fast, but = without=20 result. A precentor took his stand at the prayer-desk, and = as he=20 pronounced the words of the prayer, 'He lets the wind blow,' = a wind=20 actually arose. Further, when he spoke the closing words of = the=20 prayer, 'He sendeth rain,' rain forthwith descended. Rabbah = turned=20 to the man and asked, 'What art thou?' The man replied, 'I = am a=20 teacher of children; and I instruct both rich and poor, = taking=20 compensation from neither.I treat = my pupils=20 with consideration, and train them to be industrious and = virtuous.'"=20 "The teacher should be fluent in speech and decisive in=20 tone."In anticipation of modern = methods, Rabbi=20 Dimi says: "He who learns from one teacher alone does not = gather=20 much blessing"; and Rabbah says: "It is better to have = several=20 teachers, so as to go deeper into the meaning of the Law. = The=20 elements of a science, however, should be learned from one = teacher=20 only, to avoid confusion. Neither a youth nor an unmarried = person=20 could be a teacher." "The respect due to teachers is greater = than=20 that due to parents." "Hospitality toward a teacher is like = giving=20 to God." "The heathen who teacheth thee wisdom thou shalt = call=20 teacher." "A pupil may not sit in the presence of the = teacher until=20 the latter has given permission; nor may the pupil rise = without such=20 permission." "The pupil should be toward his teacher as a = servant=20 toward his master." "Whosoever prevents his pupil from = serving him=20 denies the pupil the opportunity of showing affection and=20 gratitude."Teachers were cautioned = against=20 familiarity with the common people. "At first a teacher is, = in the=20 eyes of the vulgar, a vessel of gold; after he has conversed = with=20 them, they esteem him as a vessel of silver; and if he = accepts a=20 gift from them, he is merely a vessel of clay, which, once = broken,=20 can not be put together = again."The=20 teacher enjoyed immunity from taxes (Ket. 62a). He was free = to=20 establish himself wherever he pleased, without objection = from=20 another teacher already settled there. "The more teachers = the more=20 teaching zeal" (B. B. 21b). He could withdraw from his = place, but=20 had to furnish a substitute. A woman could not become a = teacher. A=20 family teacher, however, is mentioned in Ḥag.=20 4b.

Details of School=20 Life.
School = life=20 began at the age of five (Ab. v. 24) or six. Rab advised = Samuel ben=20 Silat, who was a teacher of much experience, not to admit a = child=20 before his sixth year (Ket. 50b). "Whoso learns in youth is = like=20 writing on new paper. Whoso learns in old age is like = writing on=20 blotted paper." Rabbi Gamaliel said, "No pupil may be = admitted to=20 the lecture-hall if his character is not in keeping with his = allegations." He did not demand testimonials as to adequate=20 preparation, but as to character and morality. The student = must be=20 sincere (Yoma 67a; Giṭ. 67; comp. Ab. v. 18). For = every twenty-five=20 pupils there was one teacher; for twenty-five to forty, a = teacher=20 and an assistant; for fifty, two teachers. The assistant = reviewed=20 the lesson with the pupils, as a sort of tutor ("resh = dukna"). The=20 pupils were arranged in rows. Sessions were held during the = day and=20 part of the evening. On Fridays the work done during the = week was=20 reviewed. Nothing new was presented on Sabbaths. Promptness = in=20 opening and closing the sessions was recommended. Vacations = occurred=20 on days preceding the Sabbaths, feasts, and holy days, and = on=20 fast-days; on the last in order that, in keeping with the = fast, the=20 teacher might deprive himself of the pleasure he had in = teaching.=20 There was also a cessation of instruction on the three days=20 preceding Pentecost, on the half-days of Ḥanukkah, on = New Moon, and=20 on the Fifteenth of Ab and of Shebaṭ. The courses were = as follows:=20 at five (or at six) Bible; at ten Mishnah; at fifteen Talmud = (Ab. v.=20 24; see, however, Taylor's "Sayings of the Fathers," p. 43). = The=20 main aim was to attain morality: "Good is the teaching of = the Torah=20 when it is attended by morality." Talmudic subjects were the = warp on=20 which were woven all other subjects, as, for instance, = arithmetic,=20 astronomy, anatomy, and history. Samuel Arika could boast, = "I know=20 the paths of the stars, as I know the streets of Nehardea" = (Ber.=20 58b). "The knowledge of the Law is a medicament for the = soul" (Men.=20 99a). Even the teaching of the alphabet proceeded on lines = of=20 moralization, thus: "Alef, bet, learning follows wisdom"; = "gimel,=20 dalet, be kind to the poor" ("alef" means "learning"; "bet" = is akin=20 to "bin" =3D "discernment"; so also "gimel" =3D = "recompense," and=20 "dalet" =3D "poor"; etc.). Josephus and Philo declare that = in their=20 time every Jewish child could read. Reading is a primary = condition=20 of mental soundness (Shab. 103a). Text-books must be without = error=20 (Pes. 112a). Pupils were provided with large and small=20 tablets.Since parents took a personal = interest=20 in the education of their children, discipline was rendered = easy.=20 "Rabbi Eleazar was sick. His pupils came to visit him. They = said to=20 him, 'Master, show us the path of life, by which we may = attain to=20 everlasting life.' He replied, 'Do not offend your fellow = pupils.=20 See Him to whom you address yourselves in prayer. Let no = child think=20 frivolously. Let him grow in the lap of the wise. If you do = this,=20 you will see felicity.'" Rab was in the habit of beginning = his=20 instruction with a pleasant story. The teacher should study = the=20 temperament of the children ('Er. 54b). Only in case of = persistent=20 inattention might the teacher inflict punishment by means of = an=20 "'arḳeta di-mesana," a strap of=20 reeds.

Discipline.
Discipline=20 is most effective in the age of puberty. Therefore = forbearance is=20 recommended with pupils until the age of twelve, but = strictness=20 after that, because youths from that age onward begin to = show mental=20 capacity and acumen (Ket. 50a). A boy was regarded as = incorrigible=20 if he failed to attend a school in three (some say five) = years.=20 Absence for three days was considered reprehensible. Rewards = consisted in presents which were given by the teacher. Rabbi = Judah=20 ha-Nasi distributed honey (Ta'an. 24a). There were also = certain=20 marks of distinction for merit. In the award of merit the = teacher=20 should be impartial (Shab. 10). Before a wise child people = should=20 rise (Ber. 48a). The teacher should maintain control of his = pupils=20 by adhering to the most scrupulous bearing in their = presence. So=20 also the pupils must observe the rules of propriety toward = him. They=20 must not address him by name, nor turn their back to him, = nor sit in=20 his presence except by his permission (Ḥul. 18a). The = maxim, "The=20 school is more sacred than the house of worship," expresses = the=20 spirit which lay behind all discipline (Sanh.=20 71a).The rabbinical method of = instruction was=20 disputational. But the intellectual capacity of the pupils = had to be=20 considered. God Himself adjusted His revelation on Mt. Sinai = to=20 adults and children according to their respective powers of=20 apperception (Ex. R. xx.). The first step was appropriation = by the=20 memory. "Learn first, and thou wilt perceive later" (Shab. = 63a; Ab.=20 iii. 10; Yoma 71a). Excessive rationalization was = discouraged.=20 "Withhold thy child from higgayon [insistent = intellectualism]" (Ber.=20 28b). A usual means for aiding the memory was cantillation. = Often=20 the text was constructed rhythmically for this purpose (Meg. = 32a).=20 The memory was also aided by repeated reviews ('Er. = 54b);and concentration of mind and interest was = urged. "If=20 thou takest many subjects at the same time, thou graspest = none"=20 (Meg. 6b). Reading aloud was encouraged. The initial letters = of the=20 text learned were committed to tablets ('Er. 97b). The = lesson was=20 reviewed at home with the assistance of the parents ('Ab. = Zarah=20 120a).The Talmud was the text-book of = the Jews=20 of the Middle Ages. It kept their minds fresh and supple. = Indeed,=20 they needed acumen under the stress of the desperate = conditions=20 under which they lived; and it was due only to the = all-pervading=20 love of learning and the well-organized system of education = which=20 the Jews possessed that the nation was preserved. While = prelates and=20 priests of the Church could neither read nor write, and = showed a=20 brutal disdain of even elementary education (at the Council = of Reims=20 the papal legate Leo boasted that the successors of Peter = could=20 afford to be ignorant of Plato, Terence, Vergil, and the = other=20 philosophers, inasmuch as Peter himself did not know them = and still=20 became doorkeeper of Heaven [!]), the Jews of that time had = schools=20 in every part of the world in which they=20 resided.

Hai=20 Gaon on = Teaching.
The=20 literature of education becomes abundant with the progress = of the=20 centuries of European history. The "Musar Haskel," written = by Hai=20 Gaon, was read extensively in Europe. Among many apt = sentences as to=20 the worth and need of instruction, it declares: "Pay the = teacher=20 generously. What thou givest him, thou givest to thy = children. Buy=20 books for thy children, and keep a teacher for them from = their=20 childhood. Train thy children at all times, and always with=20 mildness," etc. ("Musar Haskel," ed. Steinschneider, =A7=A7 = 26-28 et=20 passim; see also "J. Q. R." viii.=20 534-540).An event of prime importance = in the=20 history of Jewish education in northern Europe was the = removal of=20 the Kalonymus family from Lucca to Mayence. This removal, = reputed to=20 have been ordered by Charlemagne, hints at the fact that = even the=20 internal interests of the Jews have been affected by the = civil=20 authority and by the whims of governments, though it must be = confessed that this action of Charlemagne was at the same = time=20 statesmanlike and = beneficent.

Medieval=20 = Pedagogics.
Instruction=20 at this period, too, was grounded on tradition. "A father = should say=20 to his child," says the "Sefer Ḥasidim" (Book of the = Pious), "'Thus=20 do I; thus did my fathers; thus also must you accustom = yourself to=20 do.'" The subjects and the methods of instruction in the = Middle Ages=20 were about the same as those in the Talmudic period. Some = customs=20 had crept in which even the watchfulness of the Rabbis had = not=20 noticed or prevented (for customs on the first day of the = child's=20 schooling see=20 Education). The order of studies = was about=20 the same as that laid down in the codes. A melammed was = entrusted=20 with the elementary part of the child's education. He was=20 compensated by the parents directly, and by Talmud Torah = societies=20 in case of the parents' inability. The schools were attended = by the=20 children of the rich and poor alike. The higher branches of = study=20 were in charge of a rabbi or savant. There was a bet = ha-midrash for=20 pupils above fourteen. The sessions for elementary = instruction were=20 held in a room ("ḥeder") in the house of the melammed; = but the bet=20 ha-midrash was a public building usually adjoining and = sometimes a=20 part of the synagogue. The aim was to impart versatility = together=20 with keenness in disputation. The discourses of the teachers = were=20 compiled and circulated. The tosafot are such a compilation. = There=20 were stated public lectures at which adults, especially men = of=20 learning, attended ("shi'urim"). Various rules for teachers = and=20 pupils were laid down; e.g.: Each teacher should be = as=20 considerate of the pupils of a colleague as he is of his = own. He=20 should lend his tosafot and not withhold them in order to = attract=20 those pupils to himself. He should allow his pupils to = attend the=20 lectures of another teacher. The teacher should strive to = awaken=20 piety in his pupils. Pupils who advance rapidly should be = removed=20 into another class, so that they may not place the less = advanced=20 pupils at a disadvantage, and that they themselves may not = be=20 retarded. Pupils should be allowed to share in a discussion = out of=20 scholarly interest, but not in a spirit of domination. Books = must be=20 treated with care, and it is meritorious to copy them = extensively.=20 School utensils are sacred=97pens, the penknife, and = such=97and may not=20 be misused.Some of the pedagogic maxims = in the=20 "Sefer Ḥasidim" read as = follows:"Boys=20 and girls shall not play together. If you raise orphans and = observe=20 they do improper things, do not hesitate (because of their = being=20 orphans) to rebuke them; otherwise you will sacrifice for = the evil=20 the good you intend. Punish them as you punish your own = children,=20 but not in anger. Children usually become what their parents = are. If=20 parents are dishonest as regards measures, weights, and = money, the=20 children, too, will be similarly dishonest. Assign to your = children=20 no tasks that are too difficult for them. Do not give your = children=20 too much money, not even for good purposes. The parent is = obliged to=20 teach the maintenance of the faith to his daughters=20 also."

Decline in Jewish=20 = Education.
The period=20 of the revival of learning in Christendom had no synchronous = parallel among the Jews. On the contrary, there was a = decadence in=20 Jewish culture, as an inevitable consequence of = long-continued=20 isolation and oppression. The Jewish communities had = coherence only=20 through a common pathos and a subtle communion of sympathy = and hope.=20 The piety which had formerly been the spring of educational = ideals=20 had given way to a deteriorated form of fanaticism which = held Jewish=20 matters sacred without consciousness of their import. The = teachers=20 were dependent to a deplorable extent on the whims of the = parents,=20 and were chosen and dismissed according to caprice. This = naturally=20 wreaked its vengeance in the demoralization of the pupils. = The=20 Rabbis, too, were incapable and derelict in the performance = of their=20 duties. The prevalent form of intellectual exercise was a = debased=20 kind of disputation, the Pilpul, inane in = content=20 and rabid in form, which, it must in justice be said, was = patterned,=20 however unconsciously, upon the scholastic sophistry of the = Church.=20 The incisive questions and learned replies of these = disputations=20 were collected in "liḳḳuṭim" = (collectanea). These were much sought=20 after for reference and study. One of the best known of = these is=20 the"Yosif Omeẓ" by Rabbi = Joseph Yuspa=20 Hahn=20 (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1723).The child = was=20 brought to school on the completion of its third year, and = was=20 encouraged to attend by gifts of honey, nuts, pretty = garments, etc.=20 A higher form of encouragement, for a boy, was the = suggestion that=20 some day he might be called "baḥur" ("baccalaureus") = and "Rabbi."=20 Children joined with the congregation in the responses to = the=20 prayers; they kissed the hand of the parent, teacher, and of = pious=20 men. The father himself instructed the child in the earlier = years;=20 later on, the pupil was taught the weekly portion of = Scriptures, and=20 along with it the commentary of Rashi; and finally he = learned the=20 portions of the Shulḥan 'Aruk referring to the=20 benedictions.

Views of=20 = Maimonides.
There are=20 evidences that some Jews transcended the limits of the = ghetto not=20 merely in attracting an audience for themselves, but also in = achieving a culture independent of the prescribed limits of = Jewish=20 custom and law. S=FCsskind of Trimberg (12th cent.) was one = of the=20 Minnesingers. Samson Pine assisted two Germans in the = translation of=20 the "Parcifal" of Wolfram of Eschenbach into the vernacular, = according to the manuscript of Ruediger von Manesse. = Immanuel ben=20 Solomon of Rome was a member of the literary circle of = Dante; and=20 David Gans held scientific relations with Keppler and Tycho = Brahe.=20 Maimonides codified the educational laws, and his = correctness of=20 judgment and deep insight into the needs of the day are as = obvious=20 here as in his profounder philosophical works. In his "Yad=20 ha-Ḥazaḳah" (section "Talmud Torah") he gives a = digest of Jewish=20 pedagogy. Apart from the Talmudic laws, the congregations of = Spain,=20 Italy, and Germany formulated regulations and so contributed = toward=20 the organization of Jewish educational work. Some of these=20 regulations contained the following provisions: A = congregation of=20 fifteen families was required to maintain a teacher. Besides = board=20 and clothing, this teacher was to be paid a stipulated = salary; and=20 if the income from the contributions was inadequate, the=20 congregation had to appropriate from its funds an amount = sufficient=20 to maintain him in a manner appropriate to his station. A = community=20 of forty families was required to maintain a teacher of = Talmud, who=20 lectured also on Halakah and Haggadah. The testament of = Judah ibn=20 Tibbon ("Derek Ṭobim," ed. H. Edelmann, pp. 3-15, = London, 1852)=20 contains some interesting references to the love of books = and shows=20 a fine appreciation of literature. The same may be said of = the=20 "Menorat ha-Ma'or" (Venice, 1594, Ner. iv. pp. 82b-84a). The = "Mussare ha-Pilosofim" of Ḥunain ibn = Isḥaḳ, Hebrew by Judah ben=20 Solomon Al-Ḥarizi (ed. A. L=F6wenthal, = Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1893),=20 contains a well-elaborated scheme of teaching, as does = likewise=20 Joseph ben Judah ibn 'Aḳnin's "Marpe ha-Nefashot" (ed. = H. Edelmann,=20 in "Dibre Ḥefeẓ," pp. 23 et seq., London, = 1853). The latter=20 says: "A teacher must evidence by his conduct the worth of = his=20 instruction. He must treat his pupils as his=20 children."

Curricula.
Ibn=20 'Aḳnin mentions the following curriculum: reading, = writing, Torah,=20 grammar (text-books of Ḥayyuj and Ibn Janaḥ), = religious poetry,=20 Talmud, philosophy of religion, metaphysics, logic, = mathematics=20 (7th, 8th, and 9th books of Euclid), geometry (Theodosius on = spherical figures, Apodorius on conic sections), optics, = astronomy,=20 music, physics, and medicine. The same author gives ten = rules of=20 conduct which each of his pupils had to observe: (1) he must = keep=20 himself pure; (2) he should consult his teacher in all = matters of=20 doubt; (3) he should not strive after wealth which alienates = from=20 study; (4) he should be sure of the elementaries before = venturing on=20 extended studies; (5) he should have interest in as many = subjects as=20 possible; (6) he should avoid indolence; (7) he should have = no=20 selfish motive; (8) he should utilize every occasion for=20 instruction; (9) he should respect his teacher, and (10) be = grateful=20 to him. Rabbi Judah ben 'Aṭṭar gives an order of = subjects ("Ya'ir=20 Natib," ch. xv.; see also Joseph Ezobi, "Shir = ha-Ḳe'arah," ed.=20 Steinschneider, pp. 25-43, Berlin, 1860; Bar Ḥasdai's = translation of=20 Al-Ghazali's "Mozene Ẓedeḳ," Leipsic, 1839; = Joseph Caspi, "Ṭa'am=20 Zeḳenim," pp. 49b-54b, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1854; = the medieval=20 school-code "Ḥuḳḳe ha-Torah," given by = G=FCdemann in his "Gesch." i.=20 264-272; and the abundant material on this subject in the=20 last-mentioned writer's "Quellenschriften zur Geschichte des = Unterrichts und der Erziehung bei den Deutschen Juden," = Berlin,=20 1891).In Italy, on the other hand, = there was a=20 lamentable confusion of thought and practise in the matter = of=20 education; and the writers caution against the injury to = Jewish=20 culture and morals due to these disordered conditions. Jacob = ben=20 Abba Mari Anatoli speaks of ill-considered teaching and = digressions=20 from legitimate subjects. Immanuel of Rome alludes to lack = of method=20 and to the inveterate habit of teachers to play at sophistry = ("Malmad ha-Talmidim," ed. Meḳiẓe Nirdamim, p. = 99a, Lyck, 1866;=20 "Maḥberot ha-Tofet weha-'Eden," pp. 229 et = seq., Lemberg,=20 1870). The invention of printing, and the sack of = Constantinople by=20 the Turks, brought great improvement. Copies of books were=20 multiplied and the liberalizing movement grew in = effectiveness.=20 Joseph Caro deals with the mutual relations of teacher and = community=20 (Shulḥan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 245-247). "A teacher," he = declares,=20 "must conduct himself with absolute virtuousness. He should = also be=20 expert in the art of teaching. He should be chosen for his = didactic=20 tact as well as for his learning. He may not be bound by = contract to=20 serve longer than three years [ib. Ḥoshen = Mishpaṭ, 71, 72]. A=20 contract with a teacher is irrevocable. The teacher is bound = by it=20 as much as the community; for otherwise injury might accrue = to the=20 school."

First Modern=20 Schools.
Saul = Morteira and Isaac Aboab erected the first school in = Amsterdam in=20 1640. It comprised six classes, and its curriculum embraced=20 elementary as well as higher studies, such as Hebrew = philology,=20 rhetoric, and Neo-Hebrew poetry. Baruch Spinoza was a pupil = of this=20 school. In 1817 religious instruction was entrusted to a = commission,=20 and in 1836 a teachers' seminary was established. In Poland = the=20 first school was established by Rabbi Joel Sirkes at Cracow. = In this=20 school instruction was given in the vernacular, though in=20 Hebrewcharacters, "in order to = enable the=20 pupils to read books which teach right conduct." It was = customary in=20 Poland for the pupils of all the independent academies of = the local=20 rabbis to meet, with their teachers, at the market seasons = at=20 Zaslav, Yaroslav, Lemberg, and Lublin, when discussions took = place=20 on rabbinical subjects, and much subtlety was=20 displayed.The position of French = Judaism in the=20 history of education is assured through the prince of = commentators,=20 Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi; 1079-1105), whose influence, = making=20 for a rational treatment of the Bible as well as of the = Talmud, can=20 not be overestimated. In the "Ḥuḳḳe = ha-Torah," cited above, which=20 describes the French system of Jewish teaching, the = following=20 provisions are given: There should always be a school next = to the=20 synagogue; the latter should be designated the Great = School-house.=20 The school-course should cover seven years. Some students = should be=20 awarded special scholarships. Each class should consist of = not more=20 than ten pupils. Text-books should be used; and the Bible = should be=20 translated into the vernacular. Pupils should examine one = another in=20 regular reviews. The recapitulation of the weekly lessons = should be=20 held on Fridays; that of the monthly work, at new moons, and = a=20 general review of the work of the semester ("seman") in = Tishri and=20 Nisan. A teacher should be employed at no other vocation. = There=20 should be a supervisor who should be responsible for the = management=20 of the school. The curriculum should be graduated in amount = and in=20 character to comport with the age of the pupil (see = G=FCdemann,=20 "Gesch." i. 264 et seq.).Despite = many=20 shortcomings, the yeshibot of Germany must be mentioned with = respect. The rabbis who presided over them were earnest and = fervent,=20 and had great capacity for martyr-like endurance. They = imbued the=20 youths with a genuine love of scholarship and with idealism. = The=20 German students, though poor to the verge of beggary, = suffered=20 hardships with equanimity, encouraged if not adequately = maintained=20 by the hospitality of the community. The first attempt to = organize=20 the yeshibot was made at the Conference of Jewish Notables = which met=20 in Moravia at the death of Rabbi Bernhard Eskeles (1753). It = provided that the same tractate should be studied in all the = yeshibot at the same time, so that the students might be = free to=20 pass to other schools without retarding their progress. A=20 superintendent ("rosh yeshibah") was to be at the head of = each=20 yeshibah, before whom the pupils were to present themselves = daily.=20 Talmud and the casuists were studied. Examinations took = place on=20 Thursdays. A promising pupil was ranked as "baḳi" = (versatile) or as=20 "ḥarif" (ingenious). Even the schools were similarly = characterized,=20 e.g., those of Frankfort-on-the-Main and those of = F=FCrth and=20 Mayence. Distinguished as yeshibot are those of Nikolsburg = (Mordecai=20 Benet, 1829), Lissa (Jacob Lissa, 1832), Posen (Akiba Eger, = 1838),=20 Presburg (Moses Sofer, 1840, and Moses Rosenbaum,=20 1883).The bet ha-midrash was opened to = all=20 kinds of students and visitors. The local rabbi was the = teacher, or=20 rather lecturer, for there was no graded course of = instruction in=20 it. The last bet ha-midrash in Germany was that of = Hechingen, which=20 closed its doors in 1853. It had been established by the = Kaulla=20 family, and Berthold Auerbach had been one of its=20 pupils.

Need=20 for = Reform.
The Jews=20 paid dearly for the delay of school reform. The untoward = conditions=20 of the times were in themselves lamentable enough. The = exclusion of=20 the Jews from the general culture of the eighteenth century = was=20 bound to bring about their intellectual and moral = deterioration,=20 unless something was done in time to rescue them. Never = before in=20 all the history of the Jews had the teacher been treated = with so=20 little respect. Teaching had become a degraded profession, = filled=20 with incapables and ignoramuses. The teacher was at the = mercy of the=20 whims of every parent. He became rather a cantor than a = teacher, and=20 was chosen for his talent as a singer rather than for the = possession=20 of scholarly ability. Ḥadarim (single-room schools) = became numerous;=20 and in these the discipline was the worst possible and the = methods=20 of teaching lamentably amateurish (see Jost in "Sippurim," = ed.=20 Pascheles, part iii., pp. 143 et seq.,=20 Prague).

Influence of=20 = Mendelssohn.
This was=20 the age of young men with ambition to transcend the limits = which=20 fanaticism had set. Some of them upon whom the old order of = things=20 had lost its hold and for whom the new had the attraction of = real=20 life, faced the ignominy that Jewish public opinion set on = the study=20 of German literature; and among these arose Moses = Mendelssohn. He=20 was the greatest reformer in modern Judaism; and his = influence was=20 epoch-making for the improvement of education also. He gave = the=20 support of his example, in the first place, by the study of = the=20 vernacular, and in the second place by the character of his=20 philosophy. The Israelitische Freischule in Berlin owes its=20 foundation to him (1778; see M. Spanier-Magdeburg, "Moses=20 Mendelssohn als P=E4dagoge," Eisenach, 1898). Mendelssohn's = pupils=20 Hartwig Wessely ("Dibre Shalom we-Emet," Vienna, 1826), Herz = Homberg=20 ("Ben Yaḳḳir," ib. 1820), and Isaac = Euchel (see "Meassef,"=20 iii. 205; "Bikkure ha-'Ittim," vi. 45) continued the = educational=20 emancipation of the Jews; and it is to the credit of the = Hebrews of=20 that period of storm and stress that the reconstruction was = not,=20 after all, attended with confusion.The = Edict of=20 Toleration issued by Emperor Joseph II. of Austria (Oct. 29, = 1781)=20 added to the upward movement. Schools were to be established = under=20 the protection and with the encouragement of the government, = "so=20 that Jewish children may be trained for the trades and may = be=20 enabled to speak the language of the country." Peter Beer = was one of=20 the first school principals (see Moritz Hartmann, = "Lebensgeschichte=20 des Peter Beer," Prague, 1839). New interests and new = avenues of=20 work as well as of study were opened to young Jews, and they = entered=20 into the economic and professional labors of the country. In = order=20 to encourage teaching as a profession and to raise its = standard the=20 emperor offered bonuses; and in order that Jewish parents = might be=20 freed from distrust the prayers for opening and closing the = school=20 sessions were modified soas to be = in no way=20 offensive to their consciences. Herz Homberg was made = imperial=20 school commissioner in 1818, and his text-books "Bene = Ẓiyyon" and=20 "Imre Shefer" were introduced into the schools. At Dessau a = school=20 was established on the educational principles of Basedow, = its=20 principal being David Fr=E4nkel, and its teachers including = Moses=20 Philippson, Joseph Wolf, and Gotthold Salomon (see P. = Philippson,=20 "Biographische Skizzen," Leipsic, 1864-66). Israel Jacobsohn = founded=20 a school in Seesen in 1801, laying stress on the necessity = of an=20 adequate preparation of teachers. He introduced also a = system of=20 periodical examinations. The school at Wolfenb=FCttel, = established in=20 1807 by Jacobsohn's brother-in-law, Isaac Herz Samson, = contributed=20 to the emancipation of the Jewish youth. The history of the=20 Philanthropin (founded 1804) has recently been published (H. = B=E4rwald, "Geschichte der Realschule der Israelitischen = Gemeinde zu=20 Frankfurt-am-Main, 1804-1904"). Among its teachers were = Michael=20 Hess, Sigismund Stern, I. M. Jost, Michael Creizenach, = Joseph=20 Johlson, and Jacob Auerbach. Another school, more limited in = its=20 scope, was the Realschule der Israelitischen = Religionsgesellschaft=20 in Frankfort-on-the-Main, established by Samson Raphael = Hirsch (see=20 "Festschrift, Jubil=E4ums-Feier des 50j=E4hrigen Bestchens = der=20 Unterrichtsanstalten der Israelitischen = Religionsgesellschaft zu=20 Frankfurt-am-Main, 1903"). Among its teachers were: Mendel = Hirsch,=20 J. M. Japhet, and A. Sulzbach. In 1840 M. Veit established a = teachers' seminary, which was superintended by L. Zunz till = 1852.=20 Other institutions of a similar character were those of = Cassel=20 (1809), M=FCnster (1827), Hanover, D=FCsseldorf, Cologne, = W=FCrzburg, and=20 Breslau.

Congregational=20 Schools.
The = first=20 congregational religious school was established in Magdeburg = in 1833=20 by Ludwig Philippson. Its aim was to supply such religious = training=20 as the secular schools failed to provide. In 1884 Samuel = Kristeller=20 and H. Steinthal elaborated a "course of study for = instruction in=20 the Jewish faith."

Religious=20 = Text-Books.
The first=20 text-book on Judaism was "Leḳaḥ Ṭob" by = Abraham Jagel, Venice, 1595.=20 It followed the "Catechismus" and the "Summa Doctrin=E6" of = Peter=20 Canisius, which themselves were called forth by the = appearance of=20 the two catechisms of Luther. It was designed for the = school, but=20 was never introduced (see S. Maybaum in the Tenth Report of = the=20 Lehranstalt f=FCr die Wiss. des Judenthums, Berlin, 1892, = pp. 4 et=20 seq.). Both its form and its definitions were alien to = Jewish=20 thought and education. Dessau's "Grunds=E4tze der = J=FCdischen Religion,"=20 which appeared in Dessau in 1782, was the first of this kind = of=20 school literature, which has since become abundant. The = Biblical=20 histories for school use owe their origin to the decline of = the=20 knowledge of Hebrew. Formerly pupils could be expected to = become=20 familiar with the Biblical stories through the reading of = the actual=20 text; but the need for specific instruction became soon = apparent.=20 Baer Frank ("Or Emunah, Licht des Glaubens, das = Geschichtliche der=20 F=FCnf B=FCcher Moses, f=FCr das Weibliche Geschlecht," = Vienna, 1820) was=20 the first to make an attempt in this direction; and his work = is=20 interesting in that it was meant for women and=20 girls.Instruction in Hebrew reading and = in=20 translation, as a matter of separate training, is first = mentioned by=20 Abraham Model of =D6ttingen, who applied a method of his own = in 1658=20 (see G=FCdemann, "Quellenschriften," etc., p. 304). The = first Hebrew=20 reader for the use of Jewish schools ("Moreh Derek," by = Samuel=20 Detmold) appeared in Vienna in=20 1815.

The=20 = Karaites.
Among the=20 Karaites, education was not neglected. Elijah Bashyaẓi = gives the=20 following pedagogic laws of the Karaites ("Adderet Eliyahu," = part=20 ii., ch. v., vi., pp. 57 et seq., Koslow = [Eupatoria]): "It is=20 the duty of every Israelite to learn the Torah in the = original,=20 philologically and exegetically. Education should begin at = the sixth=20 year; at the fifth only with children of exceptional health, = since=20 teaching should not endanger the health of the child. The = teacher=20 should be thorough in his subject, and he should not be = rash. He may=20 use the rod only to exact obedience, and must cause no = permanent=20 injury. He should assist the memory of the child by = formulas. The=20 use of one book is recommended; for change of books weakens = the=20 memory. Text-books should be written legibly. Schoolrooms = should be=20 light and clean; these the rich should provide. Poor = children should=20 be supplied with text-books. Children should be encouraged = to=20 practise reading, which should be slow and thoughtful. = Reviews=20 should be frequent. The scrolls of the Law should be = provided with=20 vowel-points, so as to avoid errors in reading and = understanding.=20 There should be translation into the vernacular. A proper = exegesis=20 requires a knowledge of logic, grammar, arithmetic, geometry = (including spherical), and = music."Special=20 journals for Jewish pedagogy have been founded, among which = may be=20 mentioned the=20 = following:Ludwig=20 Philippson, "Israelitische Predigt- und Schulmagazin," = Magdeburg,=20 1834 (2d ed. ib. 1854);=20 Moritz Bock, "Israelitische = Schulzeitung,"=20 Coblenz, 1840; = Leopold=20 Stein, "Der Israelitische Volkslehrer," = Frankfort-on-the-Main,=20 1851-60; Jakob = Goldenthal,=20 "Das Morgenland, Ein Central Organ f=FCr Synagoge und Haus," = Vienna,=20 1855; M. = Ehrentheil,=20 "J=FCdische Volksschule, Zeitschrift f=FCr Israelitische = Lehrer," Arad,=20 1862; S. Dessau, = "Der=20 P=E4dagogische Hausfreund, Zeitschrift f=FCr = Erziehungslehre,"=20 Stuttgart, 1871; = J.=20 Klingenstein, "Israelitische Lehrer," Mayence,=20 1862-69; Emanuel = Hecht, J.=20 Klingenstein, and A. Treu, "Israelitischer Haus- und = Schulfreund,"=20 M=FCnster; "Der = J=FCdische=20 Kantor und Lehrer," Supplement to "J=FCdische Presse,"=20 Berlin; = "Israelitische=20 Schulzeitung," Supplement to "Israelitische Wochenschrift,"=20 Magdeburg; = "P=E4dagogische=20 Beilage" to "Der Israelit," Mayence;=20 "Der Lehrerbote,"=20 = Prague.Bibliography:=20 In addition to the works cited in the article,=20 B.=20 Strassburger, Gesch. = der=20 Erziehung und des Unterrichts bei den = Israeliten,=20 Stuttgart, 1885 (with elaborate bibliography to = date);=20 L.=20 Zunz, Lebensbilder = aus der=20 Geschichte der Juden im Mittelalter: = i.,=20 = Erziehung;=20 A.=20 Berliner, Aus dem = Inneren=20 Leben der Deutschen Juden im Mittelalter, 2d = ed., pp.=20 1-15, Berlin,=20 1900;=20 S.=20 Schechter, Studies in = Judaism, pp. 282-412, London,=20 1896;=20 = Israel=20 Abrahams, Jewish Life = in the=20 Middle Ages, pp. 340-372, = ib.=20 1896;=20 F.=20 Cohn, Israelitische=20 Religionsschulen Neben H=F6heren Lehranstalten, = Breslau,=20 1878;=20 = Samuel=20 Marcus, P=E4dagogik = des=20 Israelitischen Volkes, Vienna,=20 1877;=20 Lion=20 Wolff, Der J=FCdische = Lehrer, Rostock,=20 1882;=20 S.=20 R. = Hirsch,=20 Von den Beziehungen der Allgemeinen = Bildungselemente zu=20 der Speciell J=FCdischen Bildung, = Frankfort-on-the-Main,=20 1867;=20 Felix = Coblenz, Die = Berufliche und=20 Soziale Stellung des J=FCdischen Lehrers, = Siegen,=20 1888;=20 W.=20 Herberg, Ein=20 Schulprogramm, Leipsic,=20 1876;=20 Adolf = Kurrein, Der=20 Religions-Unterricht, Carlsbad,=20 1894;=20 J.=20 Klingenstein, Die = Bedeutung=20 des J=FCdischen Religionsunterrichts f=FCr Bildung und=20 Leben, Magdeburg,=20 1889;=20 = EzekielCaro, = Entwurf und=20 Begr=FCndung eines Normalsplans f=FCr die J=FCdischen=20 Religions-Unterrichts, Erfurt,=20 1881;=20 F.=20 Feilchenfeld, = Anleitung zu=20 J=FCdische Religionsunterricht, Breslau,=20 1881;=20 S.=20 Maybaum, Methodik des = J=FCdischen Religionsunterrichts, ib.=20 1896;=20 Jacob = Reifmann, Ḥobot = ha-Ab=20 li-Beno, St. Petersburg,=20 = 1881.J.=20 L.=20 = Gr.


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